Importance Of Motivation For Organizational Success

Importance Of Motivation For Organizational Success Related to the magnificent changes that have happened in technology that leads the world towards Common denominators, and a diversified change happened in the world economic extension. The main economic change that result the most challenge not only for the domestic organizations but also for the multinational one is the up growth of the universal market. In order to be successful in long term business handling employees is one of the most critical equipments for a universal business to compete with others especially for multinational organizations. From here it raze the importance of the HRM (Human Resources Management) as necessary process to handle the complexity requests and needs of those multinational overseas organizations and to differentiate those successful organizations from each other. The core business of the human resources management is to attract the talents from the markets, help the organizations to achieve their goals through retaining the organizational talented employees and improve the employees performance through different motivational tools. From here the organizations started to understand that inspiring employees motivation needs more than the old tactic of carrot and stick. Today organizations need to understand the needs and advices of their employees and start to submit rewarding systems that can match those needs. To increase the level of motivation to improve the performance of individuals the organizations started to make rewarding systems that can works on the Intrinsic and extrinsic needs of the employees as employees differ as individuals from one to another. Some employees may be in need of extra wages or incentive and the others may need more responsibilities or opportunities to growth. Accordingly, motivating staff is part of an employers responsibility to attract and retain employees. The motivation process will help maximize the ability of human resource and develop sustainable management strategies for the organization seeking success and longevity. This research will introduce the many factors and provide answers to the questions that affect employee motivation as follow: What employees look forward to gain from their job Intrinsic and Extrinsic, How leadership style affect the employees and the whole organization motivation, The Effective techniques to reward employees, The importance of creating a supportive workplace, The role of open communication in maintaining motivation spirit inside the organizations, How to handle the demotivated employees, How to keep motivation spirit inside the organization. Importance of motivation in todays workplace environment The most important challenges that are facing the employers are two, the first one is how to motivate the employees to work achieve the organization goals and the second one is how to meet the needs of the employees to keep them motivated. Meeting the goals and achieving the organizational goals are both the most difficult factors facing any managers and they become more and more complex with the huge changes that has happened in todays technology and economics that leads to more and more changes in employees needs. : Importance of motivation for organizational success What is Motivation? How it effects the workplace environment? And why is it important for both employers and employees? These are the main questions that need to be handled as indicated below. Motivation is a management style of operating attitude based on the knowledge of what make people act and achieve it starts with physiological needs that turn on employees behavior, Luthans (1998) confirmed that motivation is the operation that wake up, energize, command, and reinforce the employees performance and behavior. Daft (1997) indicates that motivation refers to the power even intrinsic or extrinsic to the employees that trigger eagerness and assertiveness to pursue a specific course of action. Motivation could be defined as the interesting to spend high level of efforts and persistence towards the organizational goals conditioned by this high performance the ability to satisfy the employees desires and needs (Stephen, 2000). Decenzo (2001) define motivation as a result of interaction between the individual employees and the status, employees differ in the motivation drive, but the employees motivation changes from status to status and from place to another. Motivation is the willing to spend high level of work effort to allow the organization to reach its goals, conditioned by the ability of the organization to satisfy some individual needs of the employees Robbins, et al .(2001). Motivation defined related to the dictionary Websters something inside people that causes them to action and that this motivation is different from one to another. While the new Merriam-Webster dictionary defined it as a need that makes a person work and achieve. There are key words that can conclude the definition of motivation such as behavior, process, attitude, physiological needs, management style, energize, performance, needs, individuals, aim, goals, drives, some of the researchers like Luthans )1998) and Evans (1998) agreed that the motivation starts from the behavior and it is management process starts with physiological shortage that stimulate employees behavior towards a desired incentive. And to understand this motivation process everyone has to understand those three key words needs, motives and rewards. Daft, (1997) and Decenzo (2001) agreed that motivation is a result of interaction between intrinsic and extrinsic rewards and it differs from status to status and from individual to another. While Stephen (2000) and Robbins, et al (2001) agreed that motivation is the willing to spend high level of work effort to allow the organization to reach its goals, conditioned by the ability to satisfy the employees needs. Understanding the meaning of the work place environment expression is very important as it effects the employee performance and motivation in direct way, The work place environment is like the iceberg the apparent part of it is the physical one that can be identified as the place that one works in an office building or from home, the air quality, decoration, equipment, and the safety measures while the hidden part which is the most important and it reflects about 80% of the work environment is the culture, values, believes, relation between employees and the employer, all those factors effect directly the employees motivation. Approaches theories for understanding employees motivation Motivation theories provides a way to understand the employees and human behaviors in different situations and status, and it gives attention to know what is the main factors and drivers that effects employees performance and increase the level of commitment and achievements, it also takes care of knowing what is the employees and human needs and how to satisfy those needs. Maslows Needs Hierarchy Maslow (1954) an American professor of psychology he arranges the human needs in a hierarchy pyramids starts with the physiological needs which is the basic needs and ends with the self-actualization. Maslow confirmed in his theory that once you fulfill the basic level of his hierarchy you can move to the upper one until you reach the top of the pyramids (figure 1). The five levels in Maslows Hierarchy are, (1)Physiological needs- the basic needs of employees which is comfortable workplace, fresh air, healthy food, main physical tools that allow the employee to finalize his day to day work. (2) Safety needs- rules that can keep secure employees safety such as life insurance and medical insurance, affording rules against harassment and violence, fair salary and incentive schema.(3) Belonging and affection needs- social needs, by affording the ability to work in groups, team building activities inside the organization. (4) Esteem needs- Ego/status the ability to be promoted, adding employees to talent of pool employees inside the organization, getting the opinion of the employees in company decisions. (5) Self-actualization- Special assignments to employees to allow them to show themselves against the others and to gain more personal and professional experience, giving more responsibilities in decision making and in handling other employees and ta sks inside the organization. Maslow indicates that the satisfaction progression allows the employees and humans to move from one level to another, which is not the case in practice as some employees can move from one level to any level else based on his capabilities and his level of maturity and not in that systematic way. Alderfers ERG Theory Alderfer condensed Maslows five needs hierarchy into three levels only: Existence needs- include all physical and safety desires, he merge the first two needs of Maslows hierarchy into one level. Relatedness needs- which show the belonging and affection needs of Maslow. Growth needs- which include esteem needs and the self-actualization in one level (figure 2). Alderfer also submit the Frustration-regression principle, which suppose that the employee can move in and out of the different levels based on if their needs have been done or not which is more logical than Maslows theory. Alderfer theory priorities the needs level based on the realistic, existence needs is the most realistic and the Growth needs is the low realistic as it based on the special capabilities of each employee. Herzberg Theory of Factors Frederick Irving Herzberg an American psychologist he adjusted Maslows needs theory and reached two areas of needs that motivated employees and those two areas are shown in (figure 3) as follow: Hygiene which includes the factors that leads to job dissatisfaction and this shows the lower level of motivators that include pay, work conditions, supervision and how the business is run. Motivators which include the factors that lead to motivation in the workplace and this show the higher level of motivators that include responsibilities, the nature of the work, recognition and achievements. Herzberg theory is very easy one that shows that the employees desires and needs is more than that on the hygiene level but the motivators in workplace is more important than the physical needs. McClellands Acquired Needs Theory McClellands build his theory in that the employees needs is not a natural or inherent but it is obtained learned and improved based on the experience that employee gained during life experiences and the three types of needs in this theory are shown in (figure 4): The first indicates the need of achievement- the n-ach employee is achievement motivated that needs challenging realistic goals, always willing to success, they prefer to work as an individual or with another high achievers employees and asking for feedback regarding their work progress. The second one is the need of affiliation- the n-affil person is belonging motivated that needs to belong to a team, like the cooperation environment than the challenging and competition one. The third one is the need of power- The n-pow person is authority motivated, want always to win and to control over things, enjoy emulation and wining. All the above theories have explained the human and employees motivators and how to motivate employees based on their needs and desires from different perspective. McClellands concept of achievement motivation is relative to Herzbergs motivation-hygiene theory, people with achievement motivation resort to be interested in the motivators. The motivation theories also furnished a ways and tools to understand and deal with employees behaviors in different situations. No theory of the above is suitable for all employees or for all situations as each employee has his own values, believes and capabilities and the reaction of each employee will differ from another based on the organizational tools submitted to increase the level of motivation of its employees. Motivation Framework Model Motivation framework Model consists of the rewarding systems; extrinsic rewards systems that cover the physical rewards that come outside the job and the other is intrinsic rewards system that reflects the personal satisfaction that comes from the job itself ( figure 5). And it covers leadership style and develop communication process. Extrinsic rewarding system Extrinsic rewards come from a source outside the job, mainly by management; extrinsic rewards are physical and material rewards they are divided into financial and non-financial type of rewards. The financial extrinsic rewards are divided into three main categories: The first one is performance based- such as bonus, commission, incentive plans and merit pay plans. The second one is implied membership-based- such as cost of living increase, labor market adjustment and profit sharing. The third is the explicit membership-based- such as protection programs, pay for time not worked and services perks. While the non financial extrinsic rewards that make life on the job more attractive are for example: Business cards, assigned parking space, own secretary and impressive titles. The role of the extrinsic rewards yes is important but it becomes to shrink nowadays after the huge change that has happened in transferring of data and information technology and increasing the complexity of handling business after merges and accusations that has happened in both multinationals and domestic organizations that leads to huge change in the world economical situations. Intrinsic rewarding system Intrinsic rewards reflect the personal satisfaction that comes from the job itself, the intrinsic rewards is more intangible and it is working mainly on the individuals and how they feel about their organizations and their job. There many types of intrinsic rewards such as: (1) Participation in decision making, (2) Greater job freedom, (3) More responsibility, (4) Opportunities for growth, (5) Diversity of activities. The intrinsic rewards appears to create a winwin equation for both employers and employees and it does not depend on more financial rewards to gain more performance achievements and it becomes more convenient when resources are scarce. Leadership Style Leadership style plays a vital role on workplace motivation; these styles may leads to very positive effect or very negative effect according to the leadership style that managers and leaders within organization use, and these styles may even vary from department to another within the same organization. The following characteristics are essential triggers to measure the leadership style: A. Leader Vision: If the number one factor that inspires employee motivation is a manager with vision, so the biggest challenge as a manager is to figure out a clear-convey to employees a clear vision of what Manager hope organization, division, department, or team will achieve, Then enabling employees to live out that vision by helping those set objectives, or strategic imperatives. When employees fully understand where their organization is headed and what their role is in meeting that goal, they are far more motivated than employees who are left in the dark. Organizations that have a clear, well written, and well communicated vision or mission statement that describes their ultimate goals has a higher chance to achieve its strategic objectives. It is also very important that all departments within all organizations articulate a vision for their own department and convey it to department team; and this vision will be very efficient when employees input are welcomed and treated with respect toward achieving this vision. B. Creating and Setting Strategic Imperatives: Employees should have individual strategic imperatives that will contribute to reaching departments overall vision. Get all employees involved in the process, not only in creating their own objectives, but in developing objectives for the department. Departments overall goal should already be evident or at least outlined departments Manager. It never hurts to remind staff members of the goals if Manager hasnt done so lately. Its hard for employees to remain inspired when they have no specific and clear goals. Organizational and departmental mission statements are good motivational starting points, but to keep and maintain such motivation, Managers are in need to set objectives, or strategic imperatives, for department and individual employees. Strategic imperatives are limited, specific goals that we can complete and measure. Employee who are willingly to take on more responsibilities, need their manager to Support their ongoing motivation by making their objectives extended to the others. Manager need to Explain to employees that though there is a defined list of strategic imperatives, if they see another item that needs to be included, by all means manager need to add it. Most importantly, managers must reward those employees for their strategic vision and the extra work they do. C. Recognition: Leaders must think positively toward their subordinates, so Leader need to be able to create more ideas when introduces some of his objectives on areas that are already successful. Plus, its fulfilling for employees that have good leader ship style be reminded of the things they have done well. Employees will be much more motivated to meet their strategic imperatives if they know that their work will be appreciated and recognized. That means that Managers or Leaders needs a way to measure their productivity and achievements. Praising is one of the most influential tools that leaders use to get the most and impressing ideas and innovative from employees. D. Creating Job Measures: Job measures provide a way to quantify employees improvement in meeting their strategic imperatives. Job measures should relate to the type of strategic imperatives that Manager and an employee have agreed upon. Here are a few variables leader might take in consideration when quantifying the job of his employee: first one is Timeliness- The number of times deadlines are met and the reasons why deadlines are missed. The second is Accuracy- The ability of employees to perform without mistake. And the third is Following procedures- The ability of employees to follow guide lines, policies and standard procedures in their work. To help employees get the most from performance measurement, leader need to keep these guidelines in mind: Encourage employees to believe on the measurement as a way to promote self-growth, not as a way for Manager to check up on them. Communicate measurement results when it will help to do so. Make sure that Manager are always measuring processes, and not assessing the value of people. Measure processes related to own position too. Some employees have a strong level of self-motivation; so Continuous Improvement can be an important part of managers drive to help them succeed and achieve outstanding results. The following are some guidelines to help Manager or leader Support employee motivation to maintain high quality: Manager or leader need to emphasize and confirm that every employee is a link in the quality chain. If one link breaks, the chain breaks. Leader need to Help employees recognize that quality rests not only on the performance of the entire group but also on the performance of each employee. Manager or leader need to allow each employee to refuse everyone when she or he knows something is not top quality. Quality needs to be the ultimate authority. Manager or leader need to Respect employees judgment and give them both responsibility and authority. Authority without responsibility is dangerous, but together they provide the essential support for accountability and motivation. Manager or leader need to make results measurable and transmitted those results so that everyone can see progress. Manager or leader need to make quality part of the operation even when its difficult. The test of a real quality organization is its qualification to maintain high standards under pressure. People who have difficulty maintaining their motivation over a long period of time are not suitable for an organization practicing Continuous Improvement, total Quality Management isnt a project that starts today and is finished tomorrow, it is a continues process. Employees are inspired by values as well as vision. Practicing values, such as honesty, transparence, respect and fairness, will not only inspire employees, but it will also reinforce them to use the same values when dealing with internal and external stakeholders. Communication Process The communication is one of the essentials elements for any motivation process and it has a very big effect on the success or failure of motivation, and to assure getting the most positive effect of communication there are a lot of considerations as follows: A. Maintaining Open Communication: Maintaining open communication with employees helps inspire and maintain their motivation. But open communication means more than just accelerating employees meeting or a good word from managers; open communication includes a number of factors: Communicating regularly with employees in ways that meet their needs, visiting employees in their work areas, listening to employee concerns and accepting constructive feedback from employees. B. Communicating Regularly-and Appropriately: When Employees use certain expressions such as I dont know, I just work here. this must be considered as a clue that something wrong, as When employees feel eliminated and ignored, they often believe that their contribution to the organization did not recognize, which impede their motivation. Manager can support high motivation by communicating regularly with employees and by adjusting communication to meet their needs. Communication in todays workplace should be easy. No matter you are working on the same building, same city, same country or even same continent as the technology development reached levels that one cannot imagine. C. Visiting Employees Work Areas: It is very important for managers to get to know and understand their employees in order to be able to offer them effective rewards and reinforcement, the fact that a manager need to spend some time with employees in their own work areas to allow them to understand and inspire motivation on them. One work situation that shows a real communication challenge for the manager is the telecommuting employee. Managers have not to ignore or miss those employees the improvement of the technology and telecommunication since has solved this problem as manager can meet those employees through webinars, video calls, e-mails, and managers can also allow those employees at certain period of time to visit the organization Head Quarter (HQ) as a sign of appreciation and showing interest on him. D. Listen to Employee Concerns and accepting Constructive Feedback: Communication with employees must be a two ways communication, managers have to accept the constructive feedback from their employees and to practice the active listening style when communicating with their employees, to improve their active listening there are some strategies that can help in that: Managers have to pay attention and show interest when employees speak with them, Managers have to provide communication alternatives, seek clarification, give feedback, and summarize employee comments, Managers have to respond to employees ideas and opinions, without attacking verbally or putting them down, to respond honestly and openly, and to treat employees the same way they want to be treated and Managers have to show employees that they can trust them by avoiding making assumptions, listen to the full feedback or opinion without interfering with their own comments. E. Shows Respect: When Manager are paying attention and making efforts in developing open communication with their employees, they start to feel that their point of view have been respected and that their contribution in business are appreciated. When employees know that they are the first one to know what is going inside their organization and their department and they are apple to participate by their ideas and opinion in decision making they believe that their work is valued, and this helps build their motivation. Towards successful motivational framework à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.. Maintaining Effective Work Environment Managers have to support their employees who believe in their jobs and have high sense of motivation by creating a work environment in which employees feel appreciated, deputized and empowered. Two ways that can be used to create such type of positive and effective work environment: (1) Broadcast positive reinforcement- There are three basic types of reinforcement Positive, negative and punishment. Positive reinforcement given when managers rewards positive employee behavior or attitude with a positive reaction, while negative reinforcement given when manager rewards positive employee behavior or attitude by not carrying through on a negative response. The management uses the punishment when they meet negative attitude or behavior with negative reaction. Managers has to know the best type of positive reinforcement that can work efficiently with their employees as the motive changes from employee to another, and the only way to allow any manager to use this tool efficiently is to deal with his employees as individuals and this needs a lot of time from managers to spend with his employees to know them deeply and this is positive reinforcement by itself. (2) Create a friendly organizational culture- Besides working with employees as individuals managers have to spread a friendly work environment culture within their departments to increase the level of motivation, loyalty and team work culture, such as offering flexibility working hours, respecting diversity of workforce, opportunities for education and training courses, and some social exercises outside work. Handling Demotivated Employees Motivated employees are critical for the success of any organization, but a lot of managers are struggling to handle their demotivated employees, the problem of the demtivated employees in any organization is not only on them but also on the negative atmosphere that they spread inside the organization that for sure will have an impact of the motivation of the others. Sometimes the reason behind employee demotivation and poor performing is not related to the quality of the employee itself but to some other factors that effects his behavior and attitude, some of those reasons me be from outside work and the others are related to the job itself. Here is some reasons related to the job that can make the employee demotivated: If employees feel uncertainty related to stay in the same job or doing the same work for a long period without any increase in his responsibility or getting more empowerment that will him to lose the sense of achievement, If managers expectation for performance is so exaggerated that the employee cannot achieve it, If the employee did not have the enough skills that can help him to meet the expected performance. If the employee time is fully used in his current job and did not have much more time to spend in extra responsibilities, If the rewarding system inside the organization is not fair enough, If the rewarding system inside the organization can not fit the diversity of the experience and talented employees. The best way to determine the reason behind the poor performance is to have open discussion with the employee regarding his problem, and the manager has to be able to accept the unexpected feedback from his employee as the problem may be related to the leader ship style of the management. If the employee is consistently unable to meet performance standards for whatever reason will not allow the other team members to meet their goals and will decrease their motivation so it is the time to get red of such employee. Conclusion ( Must answer the introduction questions and complete it ) Related to the globalization that has happened during the last few years this requests high performance organizations and employees, the dilemma that there is a shortage of qualified employees and many business opportunities, this what makes the motivation systems a very hot topic inside the organizations as they are in need to extract the talented employees from market and at the same time keep the current high talented employees inside the organization. The second problem is that motivation is an internal factor and its benefit appears after a long period, and the needs of the employees are growing. The efficient development organizations and its management have to make feasibility studies about motivation types, the impact of it on employees performance and execution, and motivation sensitivity towards different external and internal stimulations. Organizations has to understand that they are handling humans, and those employees are the most important assets they own, and that motivation participation is to get the employees to do something because they want to do it, no business or job can be done without knowing or offering to the employees what they are in need of. The rewarding systems are extrinsic come from a source outside the job, mainly by management and they are mostly financial rewards, while intrinsic rewards reflect the personal satisfaction that comes from the job itself and are working more on individual needs and target mostly the talented people and they are not financial rewards. Organizations has to use the most suitable motivational programs intrinsic or extrinsic and to focus more during the next period on the intrinsic rewarding systems as it appears to create a winwin equation for both organizations and employees and it does not depend on more financial rewards to gain more performance and achievements and it becomes more convenient when resources are scarce. Based on the findings of this research, the following recommendations are made; Organizations should design developmental programs to increase its employees motivation in order to reduce their turnover, Organizations has to submit motivational programs that can retain their talented employees such as talent pool programs and career path programs, Organizations have to use fair rewarding systems to increase the level of motivation of their employees, Maintaining Open Communication and accepting constructive feedback from employees, Motivation on the job should not be restricted to extrinsic rewards only, but also intrinsic rewards, Organizations have to use employees Satisfactory Surveys (ESS) to measure the level of satisfaction and motivation of its employees.

A nuture theory of human behavior

A nuture theory of human behavior The nature versus nurture debate is one of the most convoluted in the field of psychology. In the 17th century, a French philosopher, Renà © Descartes posited that we all, as individual human beings, have certain innate ideas that enduringly underpin our approach to the world (Crawford, 1989 p 64). The use of the terms nature and nurture henceforth has referred to the roles of heredity and environment respectively in human development. Some scientists believe that human beings behave as they do in response to genetic predisposition. This is known as the nature theory of human behavior and is the view espoused by naturalists (Scott, 1995). Other scientists think otherwise; that people think and behave in certain ways because they are taught to do so. This is known as nurture theory of human behavior and is the view of empiricists. Presented in the paper are the theories of nature vs. nurture, elucidation of perception, intelligence and personality within the debate. In addition, the paper discusses eevidences in favor of nurture and the influence of environment on behavior and morality. In exploring the nature versus the nurture debate, the writer presumes that nature endows human beings with inborn abilities and traits while nurture takes these genetic tendencies and molds them as humans learn and mature. Theories of Nature vs. Nurture According to naturalists, personality is natural. This group believes that personality is a result of evolutionary process. Human beings, it believes, inherit behaviors due to a complex interaction of genes. As such, genes control their behaviors. They believe that form and characteristics measured with personality tests remain stable throughout human life. They further believe that human beings may sharpen their types or personality but can never change them altogether. Darwins Theory of Evolution led naturalists such as George Williams, William Hamilton, and many others to the idea of personality evolution. They proposed that physical organs and personality is a result of natural selection (Herschkowitz, 2002). Human beings do as their genes dictate. In support, Steven Pinker (2004) includes conservativeness, religiousness and liberalism as gene related traits. William Paley, in agreement, believes cognitive capabilities, temperaments, and cheating behaviors are inheritable. There are however various assumptions about nature. Evolutionary psychologists believe that behaviour is a result of natural selection in the environment of evolutionary adaptation (EEA). Interpersonal attraction therefore can be explained as a consequence of sexual selection men and women select partners who enhance their reproductive success (Crawford, 1989). Arguments for the supremacy of nurture posit that personality is nurtured. This group argues that one does not get personality from inheritance. They argue that the mind is a blank slate at birth. The definition of nurture has extended to influence of development that emanates from prenatal, parental, peer influence and extending to the role of media, marketing and socio-economic status (Scott, 1995). They dispute that types and characteristics measured with personality tests change incessantly throughout ones life. Harvard psychologist B. F. Skinners, experiments, produced birds that could dance and play tennis. Today, known as the father of behavioral science, Skinner ultimately went on to prove that human behavior could be conditioned in much the same way as animals. If environment did not play a part in determining an individuals traits and behaviors, then identical twins should be the same in all respects, even if reared apart. However, a number of studies show that they are nev er exactly alike, even though they are remarkably similar in most respects (Michaels, 2001). Assumptions about nurture are also present. Radical psychologists such as Skinner and Watson, for instance, claim that all behaviour can be described in terms of experience alone. Skinner (1957) suggested that acquisition of language by a child could be explained entirely in terms of rewards and shaping. The double bind theory of schizophrenia, for instance, suggests that schizophrenia developed in children who frequently received contradictory messages from their parents. Nature vs. Nurture Perception Two main theories of perception are advanced to explain the debate about nature versus nurture. Gibson (1979 as cited by Cardwell and Flanagan, 2004. P 262)  [1]  argued that perception is innate because the sensory array is sufficiently rich in information for perception to take place without any additional cognitive input. Gregory (1972) on the other hand pointed to the ambiguous and fragmentary nature of most sensory input, which must thus rely on expectations (derived from experience) to complete the perceptual process (Michael, 2001). Intelligence and Personality- Nature vs. Nurture Evidence in favor of nature has been reinforced by hypothesis on IQ that has been tested on twins and adoptees. Monozygotic twins raised apart are highly similar in IQ (0.74), more so than dizygotic twins raised together (0.6) and much more than adoptive siblings (~0.0) (Crawford, 1989). In other studies done in Harvard, identical twins reared separately exhibited likeness in the timing and pattern of development and maturation. Further was a likeness in some of the foundations of temperament and behavior, from sensitivity to activity to emotional response (Westen, 2002). This denoted that the personality of twins was influenced by their genetics than the environment they were raised. Environment on the other hand does play a role in the formation of who we are and does effect the development of our personality and intelligence. By altering the environment in which a person is raised, there can be some effect on the persons developing intelligence and personality. While this is true, the results of the twin studies cannot be ignored (Westen, 2002). These studies show that our genetics have a stronger influence than our environment. Across a variety of traits, including IQ, personality indicators such as political conservatism, conviviality, and even religiosity, homosexuality, and neuroticism, identical twins are more similar to one another than are fraternal pairs. This indicates that genes affect these aspects of personality. Gene mapping studies (Crawford salmon, 2004) have identified individual genes associated with high IQ. There is strong evidence for the effects of nurture, for example, the fact that IQs all over the world have increased as much as 20 poin ts over 30 years. No matter where human beings are raised, it cannot completely change the genes that they are born with. These studies have produced substantive evidence of heritability. What varies from study to study is the quantity that can be attributed to heritability. Indication suggests that family environmental factors may have an effect upon childhood IQ, accounting for up to a quarter of the variance. On the other hand, by late adolescence this relationship disappears, such that adoptive siblings are no more similar in IQ than strangers are (Westen, 2002). Evidence in Favor of Nurture John Watson in 1924 attempted to challenge nature beliefs by asserting that if given a dozen of healthy infants and his own world to nurture them, he would be able to take each infant and train them to be any type of specialist he might select-doctor, lawyer or even a thief. This became a famous quote in the heyday of behaviorism, when the child was considered a tabula rasa (blank slate) onto which anything could be sculpted through environmental experience. This would be a 100% environmental view, but virtually no psychologists would accept such an extreme position today (Crawford salmon, 2004). Influence of the Environment on Behavior and Morality A variety of explanations might account for this. From a biologic or developmental perspective, one might argue that pre-homosexual children are more likely to be targets for molestation. In a sociological perspective, children who have pre-homosexual experiences are most likely to experience confusion over their sexual identity and later define themselves as homosexuals. From the perspective of the moral environment, one may argue that a society with a progressively more neutral outlook of homosexual behavior will grant fewer and weaker checks on those who associate early homosexual experience with a homosexual identity (Scott 1995). Levy, a psychologist, examines the roles played by nature and nurture in the origin of moral dispositions. He asserts that evolution gives human beings a precondition of morality. However, he states that Evolution gives us the preconditions of morality, but it is only as a result of the cultural elaboration of this raw material that we come to be moral beings. He further states that human beings are animals and can never free themselves of their biological heritage. He states that human beings have no need since it enables flexibility, rational and caring behavior which they could want and allows them to seek to become more moral beings (Carlson, 2005). Conclusion Researchers on all sides of the nature vs. nurture debate concur that the link between a gene and a behavior is not the same as cause and effect. While a gene may increase the likelihood that you will behave in a particular way, it does not make people do things (Scott, 1995). This means that we still get to choose who we will be, when we grow up. Social scientists gradually understand the extent of the interactions that take place between nature and nurture. The presence of genes does not by solely ensure that a particular attribute will be evident. Genes require the suitable environments for natural tendencies to be fully articulated. These proper environments consist not only of natural environs but also of individuals social and symbolic setting (Westen 2002). But even for intermediary heritabilities, a trait is always shaped by both genetic dispositions and the environments in which people develop, merely with greater and lesser plasticities associated with these heritability me asures. All in all nature relies on nurture and vice versa and hence both coexist together.

Information Technology Outsourcing :: Globalization, Business Management

Information Technology Outsourcing   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  "Information Technology outsourcing is the contracting out of part or all of an organization's IT activities." New trends have included operations, programming, and technology planning. The main reason for information technology outsourcing is to gain immediate economic gains for the company, usually through savings. Financial motivations aren't first on businesses minds though; other strategic objectives are.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Outsourcing can make it easier to downsize. Because you are bringing in outside help, and can cut back on fixed salaries, the company becomes more variable. Outsourcing leads to tighter linking of strategy and IT. Knowledge which usually flows slowly can flow freely, and a company has more access to outside technology. Plus businesses receive information faster than other types of hierarchical communication, and the resources are endless. Outsourcing can unlock organizational structures. "The unlocked IT organization can provide a better mechanism for costing user requests, prioritizing technology initiatives and controlling expenditures." It offers the benefits of both systems involved. Another important goal that IT outsourcing takes on, is reducing technological risk. By outsourcing your needs you know that that the employee know what they are doing.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Some of the problems IT outsourcing may encounter are, loss of strategic control, risk of technological obsolescence, limiting of long-term flexibility, difficulty in benchmarking initial contract, hostage to additional charges, high exit or switching costs, limited choice of vendors, the fixed nature of legal contracts, legal exposure, from dissatisfied former employees, and cultural conflicts.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The people doing the outsourcing for the companies are sometimes the life's-blood of that company. If the outsourcers want more money, then they are almost obligated to give that money. This is usually the case when the contractors are bringing new technology into the system.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  High exit or switching costs entail the switch-over costs the company must shoulder if they decide to end the outsourcing and hire full time employees. It is important not to put too many resources at the hands of the contractors. Limiting this will ease the switch-over costs.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Legal issues also creep into the picture when a company chooses to outsource. Some companies have problems with employees that are not happy with their current arrangement or are mistreated.

The Female Martyr of Nineteenth Century Literature :: Literature Literary

The Female Martyr of Nineteenth Century Literature The literature of the nineteenth century is abundant with stories about children dying, partially because it was common for people to die young. One of the most popular forms of the dying child in literature is the martyr, who is almost always female. During the nineteenth century, white men held virtually all of the power in American society. The only way female characters could obtain power was through transcendence in death, but white males already had power and thus had nothing to gain by dying. The image of the pure girl who sacrifices herself for the sake of another seems very positive at first glance. However, this figure perpetuates the notion that girls should be selfless; rather than portray selflessness as a desirable characteristic for any morally upright human being, it is portrayed as a suitable characteristic for women. The female is supposedly the moral center of society, so she is the character who sacrifices herself for others. The martyr figure is a role model for all good girls to follow, while boys have brave heroes to look up to. Barbara Welter notes â€Å"the death of a young girl was so celebrated as a triumph of beauty and innocence that a whole ritual grew up around it† (11), but she doesn’t fully explain why the death of a young girl was so captivating to Americans of the time. The martyr is the ideal woman who will sacrifice herself for others, and in death she attains more importance than she ever could in life. The only way a woman could obtain any substantial degree of power in nineteenth century America was if she was dead. Because a martyr’s worth is only proven in death, this figure is the perfect role model to promote the sexist ideologies of that society because it encourages women to be good but denies them tangible power. â€Å"My Heroine†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   â€Å"My Heroine†is a poem about a seven year-old girl who dies while protecting a baby. The author praises the child for her constancy at school, and reports that she is â€Å"never careless, never dull.† Of course, the child wouldn’t be a proper martyr if she wasn’t also â€Å"as sweet as any seven years’ child you’ll meet.

Decision-Making Model Essay -- essays research papers

Decision-Making Model Analysis Paper   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Throughout this paper, the values of the Six Thinking Hats will be discussed and the meanings behind the Six Hats. Six Thinking Hats’ is â€Å"used to look at decisions from a number of important perspectives. This forces you to move outside your habitual thinking style, and helps you to get a more rounded view of a situation (de Bono, 1985)†. There are five values behind the Six Thinking Hats. They are role-playing, attention direction, convenience, possible basis in brain chemistry, and rules of the game. Decision-making can be difficult, but these are decisions that are made after all the information has been provided beforehand. White Hat   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬ White hat is neutral and objective. The white hat is concerned with objective facts and figures (de Bono, 1985)†. The purpose of the white hat is to focus on the data available. Look at the information given and see what can be learned from it. The person requesting the information should use focusing questions in order to obtain information or information gaps. White hat thinking is a discipline and a direction. The thinker has to strive to be more neutral and objective in the presentation of the information. Red Hat   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬ Red hat suggests anger (seeing red), rage and emotions. The red hat gives the emotional view (de Bono, 1985)†. When a thinker is using the red hat there should never be any attempt to justify the feelings or to provide a logical basis for them. The purpose of the red hat is to look at problems using intuition, gut reaction, and emotion. With the red hat, this allows the thinker to say; â€Å"This is how I feel about the matter†. Black Hat   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬ Black is gloomy and negative. The black hat covers the negative aspects – why it cannot be done (de Bono, 1985)†. With the black hat all the bad points of a decision has to be taken into consideration. This is the hat where the weak points are looked at my closely. This is the time when contingency plans are prepared and placed into order. The black hat points out risks, dangers, or faults in a design. The black hat is not argument, it is just an objective attempt to put negative elements on the table. Yellow Hat   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬ Yellow hat is sunny and positive. The yellow hat is optimistic and covers hope... ...rpose of the different color hats is so that with each hat is up for discussion then decisions can be made at that point. For us to determine who will speak first, if you are wearing that hat color that we are discussing then that person will have the option to speak first regarding there opinion. If there are more than one person with that color on, then the person who has more red, or black or yellow etc. on then he or she goes first. Beside each hat the decision that we came up with as a group will be written down. Conclusion   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The purpose of the six thinking hats is allowing a thinker to deal with one thing at a time. Instead of having to take care of emotions, logic, information, hope and creativity all at the same time. Being able to deal with them separately helps to come up with a more successful outcome. When thinking is clear and simple, it becomes more enjoyable and more effective. References De Bono, E., Six Thinking Hats. (1985) MICA Management Resources, Inc. Toronto, Ontario Mind Tools. Six Thinking Hats. (1995). [Online]. Available:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTED_07.htm

“A person doesn’t gain knowledge by possessing an insatiable thirst for it, But by searching for the means to quench it” Essay

Statement of purpose My journey to attain the ultimate goal of my life also goes something like what Frost says. It is a continuous struggle to reach the shores of success and achievement. It is to attain fulfillment in the field I love the most, â€Å"Medicine-Social work†. Before I elaborate on that, let me introduce myself as a student of Undergraduate Program in Dentistry from N.T.R. University of Health Sciences, one of the premier institutes in India. Passions to achieve expertise in Public Health and to be a part of the social work are the objectives to my Graduate Study. It would help hone my skills, earn proficiency and seek professional exposure. Though comprehensive in curriculum, the undergraduate course offers limited scope for specialization. A graduate course would pave way to earning hands-on experience and acquire specialization. MY SCHOOLING: I was exposed to the field of medicine & social work at a very early age in school and became fascinated. I obtained a solid grounding in Biological sciences during my early school years and during preparation for Medical entrance examinations in India. My schooling and further study have really shaped my thought process and attitude towards education. I did my schooling in The K P R &J L Siddartha High School, an institute known for high quality of education. From my childhood I had a strong proclivity towards Biological sciences. With this shot in the arm, I went on to do my pre-university education at Sri Vivekananda Junior College. Here I was exposed to eminent faculty, who helped bring me to the academic level I am. I have appeared for the EAMCET, a standardized test conducted for admission into the undergraduate courses, where I came out with flying colors by standing among the top 5% of the 90,000 students who had appeared for the test. MY INTEREST IN THE SUBJECT My interest in this subject dates back to my college days. During college days. I was wondered how the country provide all facilities to its population with resources being inversely proportional. This gave me a thought that every citizen of a country should be involved in some sort of social work by atleast providing the minimal facilities for a particular community in which he is living-in. Further, research in this field would definitely create wonders & would definitely contribute for the country’s Economic status. It has been rightly said that with proper nourishing, one transforms a fascination into an excellent productive faculty. I firmly believe that a part of this transformation has already been affected in me. The years as a student of Undergraduate programs in the field of Medicine at Dr B.R.K.R. Government Ayurvedic Medical College, Hyderabad which is affiliated to N.T.R. University of Health Sciences, one of the premier Universities of India has proven to be the most enriching period of my life. During the course of my Undergraduate studies, I have familiarized myself with the subject Social & Preventive Medicine, and I am very interested in gaining a deeper insight into this subject which form the very backbone of Public Health. Higher Education in United States of America would not only stand as a manifestation for my burning desire of academic achievement with professional competence, but also provide with the unique chance to test my ability to cope with the transition to a new setting, acquire new skills and improve my communicative competence. Higher Education in United States of  America will also enable me to experience a real and individual benefit of an International prospective in my course of studies. PURPOSE OF GRADUATE STUDY: During the undergraduate study, I decided to further my acquired interest in Public Health major. My propensity for research and insatiable thirst for knowledge and my ambition to contribute substantially to the field of Public Health have installed in me a longing to take up graduation. An undergraduate course, though comprehensive in its curriculum, provides limited scope for specialization. Much of the integration of advanced technologies in any demanding field takes place in a graduate program. Only then can one fathom the depths of this demanding field. Then came the decision of selection of universities, I chose American universities which are known for their world-class research facilities. I feel that graduate study at an American university is the best type of further education at this juncture because of the flexibility incorporated in its learning system, its infrastructure, the intense interaction with the industry and exposure to the latest technology. WHY PIP I CHOOSE YOUR UNIVERSITY I wish to earn a Masters degree in Public Health. I have spoken to my professors, seniors and friends about my choice of University, and have applied to —————————————— University because it is reputable for its research facilities. The department website revealed a very strong faculty involved in extensive research in the area of Public Health. This strengthened my resort to study at ———Adelphi———————University . It was during my House-surgeon ship, I realized that study, apart from dedication and the hard work requires an inspiring environment, competitive atmosphere and motivated faculty. In order to reach the educational plateaus I desire I need a good university like this. Having gone through the web pages and brochures, I am sure that this university will offer me the intellectual stimulating environment needed to help me excel in my chosen area of study. I hope that my struggle, perseverance and triumph through my undergraduate studies qualify me as an excellent candidate for graduate study. Based on the information amassed by me, I am confident that this university will be ideal for me to attain my full academic potential. FURTHER PROSPECTS In the recent years, the problem every country facing is the increase in its Population growth. To cope up with this increase, the resources should also be increased. But the increase in the population growth and the increase in the country’s resources are inversely proportional. By this, people of a country are not utilizing the resources properly provided for them. In order to eliminate this problem, a Public Health practitioner should asses the needs of a community in providing proper facilities in the fields such as Medicine, Literacy etc and thereby making its population to think over it. This is the field with a full scope for Research.. So I believe that my master’s degree in a reputed institution will enhance my job prospect in this field. I am fully aware that your institution requires that I summon all my resources and I aver that I have the necessary commitment, intelligence and stamina to look forward to it. I am convinced that my study at your institution w ould be a meaningful and rewarding experience. I look forward to have a rewarding association with your esteemed institution. I would like to take with me, in addition to knowledge in the relevant field, a network of strong and lasting relationships with my teachers and fellow students. 1 hope that my background and qualifications are found suitable for an MS degree in Public Health at ——————————————University. (RAVI KUMAR SIVVA)

Navajo Peacemaking

CAV Paper – Navajo Peacemaking Throughout Indian Country tribes have their own courts to address legal matters. However, the Navajo Nation has a court system that stands apart from other tribes. Howard L. Brown Esq. wrote, â€Å"The Navajo Nation’s Peacemaker Division: An Integrated Community-Based Dispute Resolution Forum† which was published in the American Indian Law Review 1999-2000 issue and was reprinted in the May/July 2002 issue of Dispute Resolution Journal. As a former judicial law clerk for the Supreme Court of the Navajo Nation, Brown gained firsthand experience with the Peacemaker Division within the Navajo Nation’s Judicial Branch.He details the history, development and ceremonies associated with this resolution forum. Two other authors also covered the same topic, agreeing with Brown’s opinion although from different perspectives. This paper will compare Brown’s viewpoint to Jon’a F. Meyers article, â€Å"It is a Gift F rom the Creator to Keep Us in Harmony: Original (vs. Alternative) Dispute Resolution on the Navajo Nation† published in the International Journal of Public Administration and Jeanmarie Pinto’s article â€Å"Peacemaking as Ceremony: the Mediation Model of the Navajo Nation. published in The International Journal of Conflict Management. Brown’s article opens with statistical information about the Navajo Nation’s reservation size and population, its status as a sovereign nation, and system of government. The article provides a brief history and evolution of the Navajo Nation’s judicial system, clearly explaining the difference between Navajo common law and contrasts it with the more adversarial federal or state law. The Navajo Nation Tribal Council established the Navajo courts, which make up one of the three branches of tribal government.In 1982, after searching for more traditional ways to solve disputes the Peacemaker Court began. It is know referr ed to as the Peacemaker Division within the judicial branch of government and uses Navajo Common law. [1] In â€Å"Peacemaking as Ceremony: The Mediation Model of the Navajo Nation,† Pinto agrees with Brown’s explanation of the Navajo court and government system, but explains the difference between Original Dispute Resolution (ODR) and Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR). The Navajo legal term for peacemaking s Original Dispute Resolution, because it is the traditional Navajo method for solving disputes while ADR is a term for unique mediation methods within the federal, state, and local court systems. [2] Jon’a Meyer ‘s description of the history of Navajo peacemaking also agrees with the other two authors version of the history of the Navajo Nation’s judicial system, but the article â€Å"It is a Gift From the Creator to Keep Us in Harmony: Original (vs. Alternative) Dispute Resolution on the Navajo Nation† includes a history King Henry Ià ¢â‚¬â„¢s use of compensation for crimes which is a component of the Navajo peacemaking process. 3] According to Brown, Navajo common law is also known as traditional law which â€Å"reflects the customs, usages and traditions of the Navajo People, formed by Navajo values in action,† reinforcing the Nation’s sovereignty, preserving Navajo tradition, and preventing the state from interfering in Navajo judicial matters. [4] The article relates why the use of Navajo common law is important as it employs traditional cultural values to resolve disputes which is something familiar to the disputants, making them more inclined to go through the legal process to settle disputes.Pinto agrees with Brown, but points out that there are some younger Navajos who are not supportive of returning to the old ways of resolving disputes and prefer to use the more mainstream Navajo Court System. [5] Meyer’s article mentions the use of Navajo common law in the Navajo as did Brown and P into, but states â€Å"peacemaking never fully ceased to occur in the remote regions of the reservation. †[6] Unlike Pinto, Meyer did not mention the lack of support for Navajo peacekeeping within the younger generation.Peacemaking or hozhooji naat’aanii comes from Navajo common law and tradition and includes â€Å"a justice ceremony in which disputants and community members gather to talk things out with the assistance of a respected community leader or naat’aannii (peacemaker) to reach a consensual settlement. †[7] Brown describes how a peacemaker is chosen, how tradition is followed by opening the session with a prayer to create a harmonious atmosphere, and the protocol that if followed during the mediation leading to the final consensual solution.While talking things out family and community members will explain to the offender how they have violated tradition and failed to fulfill the expectation of their role as a family or community member and how it has impacted them. Brown’s description of the peacemaking process is similar to Pinto’s which is illustrated via a table comparing three model’s of dispute resolution. The table clearly shows the importance of Navajo tradition in peacemaking and how it is reflected in each step of the process via a healing ceremony and focusing on restoring harmony to the community. 8] Pinto also includes three pages detailing the seven steps and components of the peacemaking process. The outline format makes the process easy to understand and reinforces many points brought up by the other two authors. Meyer describes the peacemaking process in terms similar to Brown and Pintos, but compares the Navajo process to other tribal resolution methods. Using the Ojibwe example of cleansing the spirits of offenders and victims of a crime, Meyer points out that the Navajo peacemaking process works to eliminate â€Å"the causes of discord rather than focus on the dispute itself. [9] A fter the period of discussion the peacemaker will often use a story to illustrate the wrongdoing and to find a consensual solution that is in accordance with traditional Navajo beliefs. Brown relates how the story of the Horned Toad and Lightning resolved a dispute over land ownership. [10] Lightning felt that he owned all of the land and was upset when Horned Toad entered it and ordered him to leave. When Horned Toad refused to leave, Lightning threw a lightning bolt which landed very close to Horned Toad who left.The next day Horned Toad returned wearing armor and when Lightning hit him with a lightning bolt it was deflected by the armor. Horned Toad explained that the Creator was the same one that gave them the land and the armor and questioned why they were fighting over something that had been given to them. This story reminds disputants of the importance of talking things out and following traditional ways. While Pinto agrees with Brown’s account of how stories are used as a part of the peacemaking process, the article does not mention any specific stories.However, Pinto states, â€Å"through the telling of Sacred Navajo Narratives, and in relating wisdom gained through personal experience, the peacemakers teaches basic Navajo principles and guides the participants from a negative frame of mind to one that is positive enough to promote problem solving. †[11] Meyer also mentions the use of stories, but states that they are used to â€Å"illustrate issues in the dispute. †[12] All three authors agree that during the peacemaking solutions are achieved through discussion of the dispute and that the resolution reached is one that satisfies all parties.Meyer’s article is the only one that mentions the term â€Å"restorative justice† and it is in reference to the 1881 Brule Sioux Crow Dog case, in which the offender compensated the victim’s family. Crow Dog murdered Chief Spotted Tail and was ordered by the tribe to â⠂¬Å"make reparations to the victim’s family, a sanction that was commonly imposed in Sioux homicides. [13] Pinto’s outline of the peacemaking process includes the nalyeeh, â€Å"a process resulting in restitution, restoration, and making a person whole for an injury. [14] The person who caused the injury or is the responsible party for the dispute is required to make sure that restitution is given to the victim or victim’s family, which will help make the community whole again. Brown does not mention the term â€Å"restorative justice,† but does explain that the solution must be something agreed upon and satisfactory for all parties involved in the dispute. The agreement by consensus implies that community harmony is restored.The Navajo Nation’s Peacemaking Division has been successful and other tribes in the United States and Canada have similar successes. Meyer’s article uses an example taken from Hollow Water, Manitoba where tribal leade rs allowed sexual abusers to plead guilty and complete a 13 step two year program that helped them address the issues they struggle with due to their having been victimized during their childhood. After completion of the program â€Å"the former abuser foes through a cleansing ceremony to mark a new beginning for all involved.During the ceremony, the former abuser washed his victim’s feet, symbolically allowing her to re-enter womanhood, then throws a mask he has worn throughout the ceremony into the fire, symbolically destroying his identity as an abuser. †[15] The tribe has been incredibly successful with less than 5% of the abusers committing a sexual offense again, compared to much higher recidivism rates in mainstream courts. Pinto’s article agrees with Meyer that the Navajo peacekeeping system is successful and even goes as far to suggest it serving as a model or Western mediation â€Å"to improve the mediation methods currently being used. †[16] Br own’s article suggest that the Navajo Peacemaking system is successful and that success is reflected in the increased number of cases in the Peacekeeping Division. [17] Three authors wrote about Navajo peacekeeping from different perspectives, bringing up various points, but all agreed that it is successful. With the success of the Navajo Peacemaking Division of the Navajo Nation court system, it is clear that this long-standing tradition will continue to bring back restore harmony to communities torn apart by disputes.Works Cited Brown, Howard L. â€Å"Nation's Peacemaker Division: An Integrated, Community-Based Dispute Resolution Forum,† Dispute Resolution Journal 57 (May 2002) : 42- 48. Meyer, Jon’a. â€Å"It is a Gift From the Creator to Keep Us in Harmony: Original (vs. Alternative) Dispute Resolution on the Navajo Nation† International Journal of Public Administration 25 (2002) : 1379 – 1401. Pinto, Jeanmarie. â€Å"Peacemaking as Ceremony: The Mediation Model of the Navajo Nation,† The International Journal of Conflict Management 11 (2000) : 267-286. ———————– 1] Howard L. Brown, â€Å"Nation's Peacemaker Division: An Integrated, Community-Based Dispute Resolution Forum,† Dispute Resolution Journal 57 (May 2002), 44. [2] Jeanmarie Pinto, â€Å"Peacemaking as Ceremony: The Mediation Model of the Navajo Nation,† The International Journal of Conflict Management 11 (2000), 269. [3] Meyer, Jon’a â€Å"It is a Gift From the Creator to Keep Us in Harmony: Original (vs. Alternative) Dispute Resolution on the Navajo Nation† International Journal of Public Administration 25 (2002) : 1380. [4] Brown, Nation's Peacemaker Division, 45. 5] Pinto, Peacemaking as Ceremony, 270. [6] Meyer, It is a Gift From the Creator, 1387. [7] Brown, Nation's Peacemaker Division, 45. [8] Pinto, Peacemaking as Ceremony, 275. [9] Meyer, It is a Gift From the Crea tor, 1388. [10] Brown, Nation's Peacemaker Division, 47. [11] Pinto, Peacemaking as Ceremony, 278. [12] Meyer, It is a Gift From the Creator, 1388. [13] Ibid, 1384. [14] Pinto, Peacemaking as Ceremony, 282. [15] Meyer, It is a Gift From the Creator, 1383. [16] Pinto, Peacemaking as Ceremony, 283. [17] Brown, Nation's Peacemaker Division, 47.